A-Level History coursework essay historyrethought

historyrethought

“The first duty of a man is to think for himself" – José Martí

A-Level History coursework essay

After receiving many questions and pleas for advice about the infamous history coursework (it’s a right pain I understand!), I’ve decided to post one of my coursework essays on here. The exam board is Edexcel, and the coursework programme I followed was ‘CW39: The USA: From Reconstruction to Civil Rights, c1877-1981’ and the following essay is the Part B enquiry which was graded an A*. Please please please DO NOT COPY THIS. This is entirely my own work and the purpose of this post is to display the technique and level of analysis required to achieve an A or A*. My Part A essay will only be available upon request.

< research paper for sale How significant was the work of the federal government in improving the lives of Black Americans between 1877-1981?

The federal government at the beginning of the century was powerfully resistant to the prospect of improving the lives of Black Americans, as “relations between the different races in the United States had frequently been tense”. Nevertheless, by the end of the century, the United States witnessed a huge transition in attitude towards Black Americans, allowing them to exercise political and social equality before the law. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to acknowledge such a reformation, as although the federal government cemented the rights of Black Americans, it was actually black activism which held much more significance. Their limitless participation to the advancement of improving the conditions faced by the Black Americans proved both integral and a consistent driving force which led the federal government to take action. As a result, the contribution of the federal government was notable, but limited.

The work of the federal government in the years leading up to the twentieth century was characterised with hostility and opposition to the cause of improving the lives of Black Americans – who had been suffering from political and social inequality. Although the main principle of the 14 th and 15 th Amendments was equality regardless of race and the right to suffrage, in reality, it was nothing short than a meaningless law that had failed to be implemented within individual states. Each state being solely interested in their own affairs resulted in the uselessness of the law; which otherwise could have guaranteed their rights. However, the resistance of the federal government was further showcased by the PLESSY v. FERGUSON verdict of 1896, arguing that the ‘separate but equal’ rule did not violate the conditions the 14 th Amendment entailed, much to which Reynolds disagrees, suggesting that the decision was instead “restricting the 14 th Amendment’s scope to political equality”. It is apparent that Reynolds places greater emphasis on the political obstacles the blacks had endured, rather than recognising their deteriorating social status. In conjunction with having no legal protection, Black Americans were unable to forge social relationships with the whites due to legalised segregation. The federal government seemed to place much more interest in the affairs in the North of the country rather than focusing on the racial problems that existed in the South, disastrously paving way for the ill-treatment towards blacks to prevail, usually committed by the whites without any convictions. All these hindrances were added by the 1875 Civil Rights Act being ruled unconstitutional; hence adding a final blow to the prospect of equality. Therefore, the significance of the work of the federal government towards the improvement of the lives of Black Americans was severely limited, as they showcased a remarkable lack of sympathy towards their worsening situation.

During the early years of the 1900s, the federal government was uncooperative as their resistance to helping Black Americans continued. This was displayed by the adaptation to the Jim Crow laws further expanding segregation onto all areas of society putting to pallet the inferiority of the blacks. Southern States were dominated by white politicians who held a laissez-faire attitude towards the blacks, allowing the progression of discriminatory laws. Further evidence is also shown through the presidency of Wilson, whose decision to remove blacks from governmental positions and to separate black and white civil services solidifies the lack of support of the federal government. Amid this however, considerable changes started to occur, one prominently being Washington’s appointment to the White House in 1901. This helped raise the issues of the Blacks as his meeting was seen as “extraordinary”, although this event was viewed by many as Roosevelt’s attempt to merely supply symbolic gestures to the public rather than taking decisive action towards any improvement. Southern Whites moreover, marked this event as the President “going too far”, cementing their lack of consideration to the black cause. Hence, the federal government’s attempt to improve the lives of Black’s was gaining a bit of significance, but the resistance to change largely existed.

The federal government’s attempt to improve the lives of Black Americans during the 1930s became much more noteworthy, predominantly through Roosevelt’s New Deal programme in 1936. Through this initiative, the economic situation of the Black’s improved as they were provided with one million jobs, 50,000 public housing units alongside financial assistance. Despite this however, discriminatory practices against blacks continued to prevail, correlating to much of the funds not reaching to whom it was intended. Recent historiographical debates present two different sides to the issue; while Biles agrees that the New Deal helped the black’s, hailing it as the “third American Revolution”; Clements suggests otherwise, stating that it was “no means a cohesive programme” effectively arguing that the New Deal was proposed for the purpose of attempting to recover the US economy from the Great Depression, not specifically intended for the blacks themselves. It is clear from Clements argument that the blacks had indirectly benefitted from the scheme. The issue of civil rights wasn’t touched upon as the initiative failed to recognize societal issues. Although the New Deal had its drawbacks, it elevated the blacks onto a platform enabling them to assert and significantly, changing the attitude of politicians seemed much more realistic over the coming years.

The years 1940-1960 marked a stark contrast to the previous years as the civil rights question gained mass consciousness in the federal government than ever before. Although both Truman and Eisenhower’s presidency was marked by their failure to raise civil rights issues in public, Truman particularly took an appreciable amount of measures that improved the lives of Black Americans. The establishment of the FEPC in 1945 tried to halt the discriminatory policies followed by the creation of a liberal civil rights committee. Truman’s commitment to the cause of equality for blacks was further shown when ordering the desegregation of the army in 1948. Resultantly, the work done by Truman was of prime significance, with Sanders lamenting that he played a “brave and crucial role” by improving the Black’s situation. Additionally, Eisenhower also showcased commitment as he initiated the BROWN ruling which overturned the PLESSY v. FERGUSON verdict ending racial segregation. Zinn hailed the decision an “exhilarating sign of change”, further shown by his pledge to desegregate the armed forces. However, his refusal to endorse BROWN and provide federal support to the Montgomery Bus Boycott clearly demonstrated his actions to be a hindrance to the civil rights cause. Therefore, it could be deduced that Eisenhower hardly provided any impetus towards voting prospects, as much criticism from Verney concluded that he’d “provided almost no leadership at all”. Throughout this period however, the work of the federal government deserves much more credibility as they took measures having a positive impact on the lives of black Americans.

Despite the evident need for the federal government to pass laws to improve the black’s situation, this was only possible due to black activism. Throughout the years, the black community had established pressure groups around the US in order to advocate the need for equality. Among these was the NAACP founded in 1909, primarily focusing on political and legal matters. Due to its growing prominence, by 1919 the group had reached 88,448 members, allowing them to become a hub at the forefront of the civil rights movement. However, at the beginning of the century, these movements hadn’t been effective as differences between the North and South caused black leaders to disagree over proposed improvements, meaning that they “could not make much headway against powerful white supremacy”. Despite this, the movements became highly diligent, and due to the number of Supreme Court decisions won by the NAACP prominently overturning the grandfather clause to end racial segregation, they placed themselves at the core of persuading the federal government to take action. This was primarily achieved through sit-ins and freedom rides, which proved “on the whole, highly successful”. Perhaps most importantly, major events such as the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and the 1963 March to Washington, masterminded by both the NAACP and SCLC successfully brought the agenda on a national scale, prompting attention from the federal government. Various historians view these movements with huge admiration, an example being Reynolds suggesting that the 1964 Civil Rights Act was the “result of diligent, undramatic work by NAACP”, implying that the federal government merely bowed down to the pressures of the campaigns. In essence, it could be argued that the government only touched on racial matters of the blacks due to these movements, and if black citizens didn’t act accordingly, Presidents would’ve remained silent on these matters. Therefore, it was absolutely vital for black citizens to act to promote change.

The years 1960-68 marked a pivotal moment in American history as the presidency of Kennedy and Johnson proved a turning point, bringing civil rights issues to the forefront. Johnson’s implementation of 1964’s Civil Rights Act, the foundations laid by Kennedy in 1963, granted African Americans political, social and economic liberty. Johnson further played a substantial role by halting de jure segregation in the South and passing the Voting Rights Act of 1965, allowing blacks to vote fearlessly. Although the work of the federal government was highly significant in these years, it could be suggested that Johnson only passed the Voting Rights Act as a response to the growing number of riots, such as 1965’s Bloody Sunday prompting reaction from the federal government. Therefore, it could be conveyed that Johnson had acted purely out of reaction, rather than genuinely proposing the bill for its own sake. Nonetheless,the work of the federal government was highly significant in these years, finally recognising the need for legislation to ensure the democratic rights of black Americans.

It is doubtful that the government would have acted if significant amount of pressure didn’t come from individuals themselves. Earlier on in the century, individuals such as Washington and Du Bois provided “effective leadership” to publicise their cause, establishing pressure groups. This culminated into a nationwide movement with the involvement of Martin Luther King, undeniably standing as a figurehead for the campaign, drawing on thousands in support of a civil rights bill through his inspirational speeches infused with a “greater moral and philosophical purpose”, suggesting that he addressed the principles of moral responsibility in order to convince his opposition. His leadership of mass demonstrations such the March to Washington and denouncing the events in Birmingham spearheaded the movement, resulting in the change of attitude of the federal government. Historians have since praised the efforts of King, suggesting that his “non-violent philosophy and personal inspiration became a force in the movement”. Other individuals such as Randolph took much more direct action, focusing much more on workers equality. As a result, the work and influence of these individuals, in conjunction with pressure groups and campaigns prompted the action of the federal government.

The final years of 1968-81 provoke mixed reactions from historians, as Nixon displayed his reluctance to extend the victories of the civil rights movement. This was shown through his opposition to expand the 1965 Voting Rights Act, leading many to believe that he did “nothing to advance the cause of civil rights”. However, he pursued his commitment to desegregate schools, as by 1974, only 8 percent of blacks attended segregated schools. In contrast to Nixon’s presidency, Cater appointed more blacks to the federal judiciary than his predecessors and renewed the Voting Rights Act which gave blacks more power than previous years. As a result, by 1981, while Black Americans had been victorious in achieving civil rights, the extent to which that improvement was achieved is debatable as the majority still lived under economic grievances.

It is often considered that the work of the federal government had been moderately significant, as their actions to change and recognise the improvement of Black American’s lives has merely been viewed as a reaction to the assiduous work of black activism rather than taking their own initiative to promote change. The work of individuals and campaigns were absolutely crucial in persuading the federal government to act, proving to be at the core of the road towards equality. Although the federal government had clearly changed its position throughout the 100 years, the need for black activism deserves unparalleled credibility proving to be the driving force leading way to legislation, as if black citizens themselves didn’t assert some authority, the likelihood of action by the federal government would be miniature.

Word Count: 2,052

Bibliography of Sources:

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• Sanders, “Race Relations in the USA 1863-1980” Third Edition
  
• Reynolds, “America, Empire of Liberty, A New History”
  
• Biles, “A New Deal for the American People”
  
• Clements, “Prosperity, Depression and the New Deal” Second Edition
  
• Zinn, “A People’s History of the United States 1492-present”
  
• Verney, “Black Civil Rights in America”
  
• Johnson, “A History of the American People”
  
• R R Penrice, “African-American History for Dummies”
  
• B Kuklick, “A Political History of the USA- One Nation Under God”
  
• S E Ambrose, “Nixon, The Triumph of a Politician, 1962-1972” Volume 2