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China has seen great changes since the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) assumed power in 1949. This was the first time that the land was taken control by a proletariat power. The CCP launched a series of economic and political campaigns to consolidate the power and developed the national economy. The campaigns brought fundamental transformations of the Chinese society. Dr. John K. Fairbank, an outstanding American academic, and historian, proposes two approaches, “redness” versus “ expertise,” to explain the chequered history since 1949 and reveal the core ideas of Mao Tse-tung’s methodology of equalitarianism and Deng Xiaoping’s approach to develop the market economy and achieve collectivist prosperity through “expertise.”
The two approaches represent two different answers to the question: how did the CCP build a socialist China (also known as “the second Chinese revolution)? “Redness” refers to Mao Tse-tung’s way to approach the second Chinese revolution, that is, realizing the socialist ideals through the “red” methods, inclusive of promoting collectivism economy, strengthening proletarian ideological propaganda, suppressing the development of capitalism, to pursue equalitarianism and achieve simultaneous property. The “red” policies were strongly implemented by Mao Tse-tung, who believed that “people can be motivated by revolutionary goals” (“Cultural Revolution”). “Expertise” refers to Deng Xiaoping’s approach to promoting the second Chinese revolution, a pragmatic method: “white cat, black cat - either will do as long as it catches mice” (Cultural Revolution”). Deng’s approach stresses the importance to develop material progress and achieve collective prosperity by allowing a group of people to get rich first. Whether it was “socialist economy” or “capitalist economy,” the only judgment criterion was whether it could promote the material advancement of the Chinese people. The approach also advocated for the respect for knowledge, science, and intellectuals, summarized by Dr. Fairbank as “expertise.” “Redness” and “expertise” were the two different methodologies to address the issue of the second Chinese revolution and caused differing results.
To keep the “redness” of the country and achieve the equalitarian ideals, Mao deemed it necessary to develop the collectivist economy, suppress or even diminish the development of capitalism, and criticize the trend of bourgeois liberalization by launching a series political and economic campaigns. The CCP was faced with serious unstable domestic situations and international blockade. As a result, the CCP took a series of measures to consolidate the “red” power. Economically, the CCP launched “the Three Anti Campaign and the “Five Campaign Movement” to deepen the CCP’s economic involvement and strengthen “political control” (“Construct a New China”). “The Great Leap Forward” and the “Movement to Form Rural People’s Communes” were the peak of the economic campaigns to realize the equalitarian ideals. People worked together, ate together, and made achievements together to achieve the “simultaneous prosperity.” When reminded by Peng Dehuai, the honorable general and revolutionist, that the achievements of the “Great Leap Forward” were extremely exaggerated, Mao openly attacked Peng Dehuai in the Lushan Conference and classified him as someone who should be denounced in the Three Anti Campaign. The Lushan Conference sent a signal: No one would be allowed to criticize the movements towards the equalitarian economy. Any effort to criticize the movement would be seen as an anti-revolution act. Ideologically, the CCP propagandized the proletarian thoughts and ideas and cracked down the capitalist thoughts. In 1955, the CCP launched the “Anti-Hu Feng Campaign” (“Cultural Revolution”). The peak of the series campaigns was the so-called “the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution,” in which the propaganda of socialism, proletarian struggles, anti-capitalism, anti-revisionism, etc. was pushed to the highest point. In the movie, To Live, the people in that period praised highly of the Mao Tse-tung Thought. Everything they said or did had to conform to the spirit of Mao. Everything that was deemed to be against the trend of “redness” was sure to be suppressed and struck down. Although the campaigns could help to consolidate the CCP’s control of the country, they also brought great destruction to the national economy and many innocent people were embroiled, even lost their lives in the campaigns and movements.
To restore the normal order that was destroyed in the Cultural Revolution and develop the power of the country, Deng addressed the second Chinese revolution through “expertise,” that is, to respect the power of knowledge, respect the labor of the intellectuals, advocate for the spirit that “practice is the sole criterion of truth,” and allow for the development of capitalist economy to promote the material progress of China (“China in the 1980s”). Deng’s approach abandoned Mao’s equalitarian ideals and stressed the methodology to achieve collective prosperity through reviving the market economy. The market economy aimed to emancipate and develop the productive forces. Under the guidance of the “expertise” principles, the CCP initiated a series of measures to restore the normal order of production and people’s living. Politically, the CCP corrected the chaos of the Cultural Revolution and rehabilitated the mishandled cases to bring the intellectuals back for socialist construction. In 1981, The Gang of Four was brought to trial, and the CCP and the Chinese people began to reflect on thoughts and actions in the Cultural Revolution (Cultural Revolution 2”). The proletarian culture and class struggle, revolutionary goals were no longer advocated in the CCP policies. Economically, the CCP developed the “socialist market economy system” to promote the productivity of China. In the rural section, the CCP implemented the “Household Responsibility System” to increase the farmers’ enthusiasm for production. Culturally, the CCP restored the National Higher Education Entrance Examination to prepare the young people for the development of socialism. The “sent-down” youth in the movement of “Chinese Educated Urban Youth Going and Working in the Countryside and Mountain Areas” were allowed to returned to the cities (“China in the 1980s”). The series of measures were backed by the thought of “emancipating the mind, seeking truth from facts,” breaking the personality cult in the Cultural Revolution.
The “redness/expertise” dichotomy proposed by Dr. Fairbank is useful in understanding the series of campaigns, movements, and reforms launched in the process of socialist China construction. Through the dichotomy, it is easy to analyze the core idea Mao Tse-tung and the CCP developed the collectivist economy and suppressed the so-called “capitalism” and why Deng Xiaoping did the contrary to correct the Cultural Revolution mistakes and advocated for the spirit of “expertise” and the power of knowledge and science. The dichotomy reveals the essence of the two different methodologies to build a socialist China.
References
“China in the 1980s.” PPT file.
“Construct a New China.” PPT file.
“Cultural Revolution.” PPT file.
“Cultural Revolution 2.” PPT file.
Qiu, Fusheng. (Producer), & Zhang, Yimou. (Director). (1994). To Live. China: Era International (Hong Kong) Ltd.