Lecture Notes—Life Span Development
This chapter focuses on the study of how human beings develop across the life-span.
Developmental Psychologists study many specific facets of development (e.g., how
divorce impacts one’s future social relationships). We can classify the research in this
area into 3 domains. They are: cognitive, psychosocial, and physical.
The normative approach looks at assessing what is normal growth and development.
Specifically, at what ages should children demonstrate specific skills/abilities (e.g., first
words). The development of such abilities is termed developmental milestones. These
are important to know, as we can compare a specific child’s development to that of what
would be expected for their age. For instance, most children are using 2 words by 24
months of age. A 3-year old child who has yet to meet this milestone would most likely
need to be evaluated by a medical professional to determine if there any
physical/psychological issues that may be impeding his/her development.
As noted in your text, the continuous development approach views development as a
cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills (e.g., language ability
becomes more refined over time). This is contrasted with the discontinuous approach
(see text).
The Nature vs. Nurture issue.
A long-standing issue in psychology is the influence of nature (e.g., genetics) and
nurture (e.g., environmental factors) on one’s development. For instance, is aggression
the result of genetics “I inherited this trait” or nurture “I was raised to be mean?”
Research has shown that both of these factors play a role in human development.
An important consideration in development is the topic of teratogens. A teratogen is
any type of toxin (e.g., alcohol) or illness that can interrupt normal fetal development
and cause birth defects. Your text also discusses the concept of critical periods. These
are the times in which exposure to a teratogen is most dangerous. For instance,
between weeks 3 and 8 of development the organ systems of the baby are being
formed. Exposure to teratogens during this time can be very problematic.
For this chapter we will focus on learning about two of the major theories that have
shaped this field: Erik Erikson’s Theory of Personality Development and Jean Piaget’s
Theory of Cognitive Development.
Psychosocial Theory (please see the description and chart in the text)
This approach was developed by Erik Erikson. It consists of 8 stages of psychosocial
development. It centers on the assumption that our personality grows and changes
throughout the life-span. The theory was a reaction to Sigmund Freud’s Theory which
we will learn about in the module on Personality Development. But for now, lets jump
right into this fascinating theory!!
1) Trust vs Mistrust-(Infancy). We are in this stage at birth. Children will develop a sense
of trust in their world if their needs are met in a consistent manner. Inconsistent or
neglectful/abusive parenting will lead to distrust. This is a fundamental aspect of
personality—trust in others is critical for our development (e.g., a child must trust adults
or the first day of preschool could be a disaster!).
2) Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt-(Toddlers) If you have ever been around a toddler you
know that they think that they can do anything. Toddlers seek to establish
independence (autonomy) (“Me do it.”). This is normal and natural—but dangerous! If
parents stifle such desire for autonomy the child may experience shame/doubt.
Consider a “helicopter parent” who watches over every move the kid makes doing
everything for him. This will not be beneficial for his development as an independent
being. We have to learn to do things on our own. So, parents have a tough job here of
deciding what to allow (e.g., dressing oneself) versus what not to allow (e.g., walking
down the stairs unassisted).
3) Initiative vs. Guilt-(Preschoolers) Children in this age range begin to initiate activities
(e.g., making their mother a nice picture so that “she will be happy.”) A parent who
would criticize the child’s efforts might cause the child to feel guilt. It is during this stage
that parents also expect some initiative out of their children (e.g., many parents want
their children to put their toys away after playing—not leave them in the middle of the
living room!!)
4) Industry vs. Inferiority-(Grade school age) Children learn about their skills and
abilities (e.g., school, sports). The grade school years are ripe with the opportunity to
learn what one is good at (e.g., sports, art, music). Some kids might come to feel inferior
if they feel they don’t quite match up.
5) Identity vs. Role Confusion-(Teen years) Adolescents seek to answer the question
“Who am I? They are trying to figure out who they are and where they are going in life.
Issues of identity include: career goals, morals, values, beliefs, etc. It is a lot to figure
out! Those who do not develop an identity will feel confusion regarding these issues
(e.g., A college student states: “Everyone else seems to have it together—I keep
changing my major—I don’t know what I want to do with my life.”)
6) Intimacy vs. Isolation-(Young Adulthood) Young adults seek to establish intimate
relationships in which they can share their identities with another. Those who don’t
might develop feelings of isolation or loneliness.
7) Generativity vs Stagnation-(Middle Adulthood) Most middle-aged adults start to
realize that they are not getting any younger. Those in this age range seek to “give
back” to society in some way (to generate). Examples include: coaching, mentoring,
volunteer work. Those who do not might experience stagnation and could be considered
self-absorbed. Consider this true story. I once saw a middle-aged man throw all of his
McDonalds wrappers onto the street in my neighborhood. This is stagnation—a concern
only for oneself.
of trust in their world if their needs are met in a consistent manner. Inconsistent or
neglectful/abusive parenting will lead to distrust. This is a fundamental aspect of
personality—trust in others is critical for our development (e.g., a child must trust adults
or the first day of preschool could be a disaster!).
2) Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt-(Toddlers) If you have ever been around a toddler you
know that they think that they can do anything. Toddlers seek to establish
independence (autonomy) (“Me do it.”). This is normal and natural—but dangerous! If
parents stifle such desire for autonomy the child may experience shame/doubt.
Consider a “helicopter parent” who watches over every move the kid makes doing
everything for him. This will not be beneficial for his development as an independent
being. We have to learn to do things on our own. So, parents have a tough job here of
deciding what to allow (e.g., dressing oneself) versus what not to allow (e.g., walking
down the stairs unassisted).
3) Initiative vs. Guilt-(Preschoolers) Children in this age range begin to initiate activities
(e.g., making their mother a nice picture so that “she will be happy.”) A parent who
would criticize the child’s efforts might cause the child to feel guilt. It is during this stage
that parents also expect some initiative out of their children (e.g., many parents want
their children to put their toys away after playing—not leave them in the middle of the
living room!!)
4) Industry vs. Inferiority-(Grade school age) Children learn about their skills and
abilities (e.g., school, sports). The grade school years are ripe with the opportunity to
learn what one is good at (e.g., sports, art, music). Some kids might come to feel inferior
if they feel they don’t quite match up.
5) Identity vs. Role Confusion-(Teen years) Adolescents seek to answer the question
“Who am I? They are trying to figure out who they are and where they are going in life.
Issues of identity include: career goals, morals, values, beliefs, etc. It is a lot to figure
out! Those who do not develop an identity will feel confusion regarding these issues
(e.g., A college student states: “Everyone else seems to have it together—I keep
changing my major—I don’t know what I want to do with my life.”)
6) Intimacy vs. Isolation-(Young Adulthood) Young adults seek to establish intimate
relationships in which they can share their identities with another. Those who don’t
might develop feelings of isolation or loneliness.
7) Generativity vs Stagnation-(Middle Adulthood) Most middle-aged adults start to
realize that they are not getting any younger. Those in this age range seek to “give
back” to society in some way (to generate). Examples include: coaching, mentoring,
volunteer work. Those who do not might experience stagnation and could be considered
self-absorbed. Consider this true story. I once saw a middle-aged man throw all of his
McDonalds wrappers onto the street in my neighborhood. This is stagnation—a concern
only for oneself.
8) Integrity vs. Despair-(Late Adulthood) Older adults often reflect on their past. They
determine if they liked or did not like the kind of life they lived. Those who see their life
positively experience integrity (positive feelings), those who see their life negatively
experience despair (negative feelings). Obviously, integrity is the goal here.
Cognitive Development-Jean Piaget
How does our thinking change over time? Why is it easy to convince a young child that
there is an Easter bunny, and then by the time they are a teenager they are capable of
solving complex problems and questioning everything that their parents say? (I know--I
have two teens in my home now—Whoa!!). The earliest research on how our thinking
changes (cognitive development) was conducted by Jean Piaget.
Piaget was a child prodigy. He started his career as a biologist but switched to
psychology. His earliest research subjects were his own children!
Piaget’s theory has been termed a constructivist theory, in that he saw children as
actively constructing knowledge about their world. We build or construct our own
individual understandings and knowledge of things. We do this via what are termed
schemata (schemes).
Schemes--Are defined as concepts or mental models that are used to help us
categorize or interpret information. Think for a moment of a coffee cup. You don’t have
to have one in your presence to know what it is and to describe its characteristics. You
have a scheme or a mental representation (idea, knowledge) of this object.
Schemes have also been termed the “basic building blocks of thinking,” as once we
have one scheme, we can build upon that knowledge to create new knowledge. For
example, your text describes the classic example of a child who has a dog.
The child would have a “dog” scheme—knowing that it has a tail, 4 legs, etc. At some
point the child sees a sheep for the first time and yells out “Look Mommy--Dog.”
Although this is incorrect it matches the child’s existing scheme of 4 legged creatures.
The process in which we take new information (sheep) and match it to an existing
scheme (dog) is termed assimilation.
Now, the child’s parents are likely to correct him and state “No that’s a sheep—it’s
different than a dog it.........”
The child will then learn the new concept of sheep. Thus, he will have a scheme of a
sheep. The development of new schemes is termed accommodation.
So, at this point you yourself should have schemes of Piaget, schemes, assimilation,
and accommodation!
determine if they liked or did not like the kind of life they lived. Those who see their life
positively experience integrity (positive feelings), those who see their life negatively
experience despair (negative feelings). Obviously, integrity is the goal here.
Cognitive Development-Jean Piaget
How does our thinking change over time? Why is it easy to convince a young child that
there is an Easter bunny, and then by the time they are a teenager they are capable of
solving complex problems and questioning everything that their parents say? (I know--I
have two teens in my home now—Whoa!!). The earliest research on how our thinking
changes (cognitive development) was conducted by Jean Piaget.
Piaget was a child prodigy. He started his career as a biologist but switched to
psychology. His earliest research subjects were his own children!
Piaget’s theory has been termed a constructivist theory, in that he saw children as
actively constructing knowledge about their world. We build or construct our own
individual understandings and knowledge of things. We do this via what are termed
schemata (schemes).
Schemes--Are defined as concepts or mental models that are used to help us
categorize or interpret information. Think for a moment of a coffee cup. You don’t have
to have one in your presence to know what it is and to describe its characteristics. You
have a scheme or a mental representation (idea, knowledge) of this object.
Schemes have also been termed the “basic building blocks of thinking,” as once we
have one scheme, we can build upon that knowledge to create new knowledge. For
example, your text describes the classic example of a child who has a dog.
The child would have a “dog” scheme—knowing that it has a tail, 4 legs, etc. At some
point the child sees a sheep for the first time and yells out “Look Mommy--Dog.”
Although this is incorrect it matches the child’s existing scheme of 4 legged creatures.
The process in which we take new information (sheep) and match it to an existing
scheme (dog) is termed assimilation.
Now, the child’s parents are likely to correct him and state “No that’s a sheep—it’s
different than a dog it.........”
The child will then learn the new concept of sheep. Thus, he will have a scheme of a
sheep. The development of new schemes is termed accommodation.
So, at this point you yourself should have schemes of Piaget, schemes, assimilation,
and accommodation!
Piaget believed that this process of assimilation and accommodation of schemes occurs
throughout life. He also believed that interaction with one’s environment was essential
for cognitive development. Sitting in front of a T.V. all day does not count!!
Stages of Cognitive Development
Scheme building also is occurring during 4 stages of cognitive development.
1) Sensorimotor Stage-(birth-2 years) During this stage children learn to coordinate their
senses (e.g., vision, audition) with their motor movements (e.g., moving one’s arms and
legs). For example, an infant will learn to kick the side of his crib in order to make a
mobile above him play music.
A very important development at this stage (occurring around 6-7 months) is termed
Object Permanence (OP). It is the realization that objects continue to exist even when
they are not physically present. So, if you take a toy from a child who has not developed
OP he will not cry, protest, or look for the object. Out of sight simply means out of mind.
Now, consider the baby who has developed OP. Once you take the toy he realizes that
it continues to exist. He has a mental representation of this object. He literally can see it
in his mind. Thus, he will cry, protest, and search for the toy.
2) Preoperational Stage-(2-6 years) During this stage children manifest several
interesting cognitive phenomena.
a) Symbolic thought—Children learn to use symbols. A symbol is when one thing can
stand for or represent another (e.g. a child may pretend that a magic marker is a rocket
ship). Symbols are also words, and at this stage of life the growth in a child’s vocabulary
is quite large.
b) Egocentric Thought---Children have a difficult time taking the perspective of another.
They literally believe that their experience is yours as well. For example, a child is
demonstrating egocentric thought when on the phone with grandma he makes hand
gestures—assuming that grandma can see what he is doing. Another example—I once
told my daughter to move from in front of the T.V. as I could not see. She simply stated
“Why-- I can see it just fine.”
Piaget assessed this concept by means of “The Three Mountains Task.” In this task
children sit opposite an adult. When asked to see what the adult sees they always
report what they see.
c) Animism—This is the idea children hold that “everything is alive.” For example,
children might draw a sun with eyes, sunglasses or a mouth that is smiling. Children’s
television programming often takes advantage of this tendency.
d) Mental operations (reversible thinking)—Children in this age range often have a
difficult time with the mental operation of reversing their thinking. Piaget demonstrated
throughout life. He also believed that interaction with one’s environment was essential
for cognitive development. Sitting in front of a T.V. all day does not count!!
Stages of Cognitive Development
Scheme building also is occurring during 4 stages of cognitive development.
1) Sensorimotor Stage-(birth-2 years) During this stage children learn to coordinate their
senses (e.g., vision, audition) with their motor movements (e.g., moving one’s arms and
legs). For example, an infant will learn to kick the side of his crib in order to make a
mobile above him play music.
A very important development at this stage (occurring around 6-7 months) is termed
Object Permanence (OP). It is the realization that objects continue to exist even when
they are not physically present. So, if you take a toy from a child who has not developed
OP he will not cry, protest, or look for the object. Out of sight simply means out of mind.
Now, consider the baby who has developed OP. Once you take the toy he realizes that
it continues to exist. He has a mental representation of this object. He literally can see it
in his mind. Thus, he will cry, protest, and search for the toy.
2) Preoperational Stage-(2-6 years) During this stage children manifest several
interesting cognitive phenomena.
a) Symbolic thought—Children learn to use symbols. A symbol is when one thing can
stand for or represent another (e.g. a child may pretend that a magic marker is a rocket
ship). Symbols are also words, and at this stage of life the growth in a child’s vocabulary
is quite large.
b) Egocentric Thought---Children have a difficult time taking the perspective of another.
They literally believe that their experience is yours as well. For example, a child is
demonstrating egocentric thought when on the phone with grandma he makes hand
gestures—assuming that grandma can see what he is doing. Another example—I once
told my daughter to move from in front of the T.V. as I could not see. She simply stated
“Why-- I can see it just fine.”
Piaget assessed this concept by means of “The Three Mountains Task.” In this task
children sit opposite an adult. When asked to see what the adult sees they always
report what they see.
c) Animism—This is the idea children hold that “everything is alive.” For example,
children might draw a sun with eyes, sunglasses or a mouth that is smiling. Children’s
television programming often takes advantage of this tendency.
d) Mental operations (reversible thinking)—Children in this age range often have a
difficult time with the mental operation of reversing their thinking. Piaget demonstrated
this by creating 3 conservation tasks—conservation of liquid, mass, and number.
Consider the conservation of liquid task. The child is shown two identical glasses of
water. He is asked if they have the same amount of water. He agrees that they do.
Next, one of the glasses is poured into a larger vessel. It appears to look like there is
more in this new glass. The child is asked if they are now the same or different.
Preoperational children state that there is more in the bigger container. They are unable
to mentally reverse the sequence of actions and realize that nothing has changed. Their
focus is on the size or height of the second container. They cannot “decenter” and take
their focus off of this height, mentally dump the water back into its original container,
and realize nothing ever changed.
3) Concrete Operations-(7-11 years)
At this point children are capable of solving the conservation problems and manifest
other distinct capabilities (see text). However, they demonstrate a difficult time with
abstract thinking. For example, if you ask a child in this stage to interpret the proverb
“All that glitters is not gold” their response might be something like “That’s right some
glitter is red, some is blue, and some is yellow.” They completely fail to comprehend or
understand that there is an underlying hidden meaning to this statement. In the
following stage, Formal Operations, the child will most likely be able to state what this
proverb actually means (e.g., “Just because something looks great—like a family on the
outside—does not mean that they have a perfect life”).
4) Formal Operational-(ages 12 and older) At this stage children/teens can engage in
abstract thinking. They can also hypothesize about things and reason well.
They also develop what is known as Critical Thinking-Critical thinking is the capacity to
evaluate and criticize ideas and arguments. It involves logic and the ability to question
and to provide logical reasons for one’s viewpoints, disagreements, positions, etc. For
instance, an individual with poor critical thinking skills might dislike a theory and state “I
don’t like it—I just don’t.” Likewise, an individual with good critical thinking skills would
state that they don’t like it and would list several logical counter arguments against the
said theory.
Now, Piaget’s theory is a stage theory. This means that most human beings pass
through each stage at certain age ranges. The stages follow an invariant sequence,
meaning they are followed in order.
Make sure that you know the difference between fine and gross motor skills.
Make sure you understand the concept of theory of mind.
Parenting Styles
Research by Diana Baumrind has found that there are 4 specific types of parenting
styles. These include: Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive, and Uninvolved.
Consider the conservation of liquid task. The child is shown two identical glasses of
water. He is asked if they have the same amount of water. He agrees that they do.
Next, one of the glasses is poured into a larger vessel. It appears to look like there is
more in this new glass. The child is asked if they are now the same or different.
Preoperational children state that there is more in the bigger container. They are unable
to mentally reverse the sequence of actions and realize that nothing has changed. Their
focus is on the size or height of the second container. They cannot “decenter” and take
their focus off of this height, mentally dump the water back into its original container,
and realize nothing ever changed.
3) Concrete Operations-(7-11 years)
At this point children are capable of solving the conservation problems and manifest
other distinct capabilities (see text). However, they demonstrate a difficult time with
abstract thinking. For example, if you ask a child in this stage to interpret the proverb
“All that glitters is not gold” their response might be something like “That’s right some
glitter is red, some is blue, and some is yellow.” They completely fail to comprehend or
understand that there is an underlying hidden meaning to this statement. In the
following stage, Formal Operations, the child will most likely be able to state what this
proverb actually means (e.g., “Just because something looks great—like a family on the
outside—does not mean that they have a perfect life”).
4) Formal Operational-(ages 12 and older) At this stage children/teens can engage in
abstract thinking. They can also hypothesize about things and reason well.
They also develop what is known as Critical Thinking-Critical thinking is the capacity to
evaluate and criticize ideas and arguments. It involves logic and the ability to question
and to provide logical reasons for one’s viewpoints, disagreements, positions, etc. For
instance, an individual with poor critical thinking skills might dislike a theory and state “I
don’t like it—I just don’t.” Likewise, an individual with good critical thinking skills would
state that they don’t like it and would list several logical counter arguments against the
said theory.
Now, Piaget’s theory is a stage theory. This means that most human beings pass
through each stage at certain age ranges. The stages follow an invariant sequence,
meaning they are followed in order.
Make sure that you know the difference between fine and gross motor skills.
Make sure you understand the concept of theory of mind.
Parenting Styles
Research by Diana Baumrind has found that there are 4 specific types of parenting
styles. These include: Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive, and Uninvolved.
a) Authoritarian-These parents are to be obeyed (“It is my way or the highway”). They
are strict and punish their child for breaking rules. One type of punishment that may use
is corporal punishment, which involves physical (e.g., spankings) discipline. Children in
this family do not have a say in matters of discipline—there would be no good excuses
for a problem behavior.
b) Authoritative-These parents have rules but are more flexible. If you have ever
watched the Brady Bunch you have seen this—Mr. Brady is this type of parent. They
allow 2-way communication with their children. They will punish their children but they
will allow them a voice.
c) Permissive-These parents don’t enforce rules and do not set limits. Sometimes they
view their children as friends not children!
d) Uninvolved-As noted in the text, these parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and
neglecting. A neglecting parent may fail to meet their child’s needs (e.g., a child may
need glasses and the parent could care less).
Emerging Adulthood (EA)
This is a relatively new area of research on the time frame of life from 18-25 in which
one is not considered an adolescent and is yet not considered to be a full-fledged adult.
Be familiar with the material on attachment.
are strict and punish their child for breaking rules. One type of punishment that may use
is corporal punishment, which involves physical (e.g., spankings) discipline. Children in
this family do not have a say in matters of discipline—there would be no good excuses
for a problem behavior.
b) Authoritative-These parents have rules but are more flexible. If you have ever
watched the Brady Bunch you have seen this—Mr. Brady is this type of parent. They
allow 2-way communication with their children. They will punish their children but they
will allow them a voice.
c) Permissive-These parents don’t enforce rules and do not set limits. Sometimes they
view their children as friends not children!
d) Uninvolved-As noted in the text, these parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and
neglecting. A neglecting parent may fail to meet their child’s needs (e.g., a child may
need glasses and the parent could care less).
Emerging Adulthood (EA)
This is a relatively new area of research on the time frame of life from 18-25 in which
one is not considered an adolescent and is yet not considered to be a full-fledged adult.
Be familiar with the material on attachment.